This is part two of a post on the War of 1812 on Lake Champlain. For part one click here.
To say there was conflict at this time would be an understatement. Not only was there the conflict between the British and the Americans playing out on the lake and in the surrounding valley, there was also conflict amongst the population of Vermont in particular. This war became a major source of political divide. However, the conflict was about to change locally - Britain was about to launch a major offensive into American territory in the Champlain Valley.
Murray's Raid
With the Americans no longer in naval control of the lake, British Colonel John Murray would lead a brief but effective raid with 900 officers and troops. The raiders entered Plattsburgh unopposed. New York militia under General Mooers had no choice but to retreat, as General Hampton refused to send reinforcements from Burlington. In Plattsburgh, the raiders burned a blockhouse and several storage warehouses, and looted private property.
At this point the raiders split into two groups. One group led by Murray landed at Point au Roche and plundered more private property. The group then proceeded to go across Lake Champlain to Swanton, Vermont were more looting took place (despite orders not to do so, as Vermont's support for the war effort had been lukewarm at best), and the barracks were destroyed.
The second group sailing south with the HMS Broke and HMS Shannon (the two former US vessels gifted to the British) headed for Burlington Harbor. From a distance, the British fleet fired upon the Burlington Battery and the naval vessels docked nearby. The firing continued for about 20 minutes, but the long range made the fire from both sides ineffective. After this, they proceeded to Shelburne and Charlotte, then retreated back north. However, before they reached Canada, they did more destruction at Chazy and Champlain. This was a very effective raid and highlighted the need for the American fleet to be rebuilt with haste.
MacDonough was up to that task. By September, he had rebuilt the USS President, and added the USS Preble and the USS Montgomery. Two smaller vessels would also be added, the Francis and the Wasp.
Another Attempt at Montreal
In the meantime, General Wade Hampton had arrived in the Champlain Valley to begin another attempt on taking Montreal. The plan initially was for him and 4,000 troops to go north along the Richelieu River, while General Wilkinson would move against Montreal from the west along the St. Lawrence River. Hampton had asked for assistance from MacDonough in the invasion of Canada, but in a controversial decision, MacDonough refused. He did, however, offer assistance in transporting troops and supplies across the lake for the advance.
From Chazy, Hampton would enter Canada at Champlain, and return back to the US after only one day. He cited the lack of water as his reasoning. He then decided against the Richelieu route owing to the strength of British Forces at Isle aux Noix. He would then march west to the Chateaugay River. There he waited and waited, in part due to the awful communication between the two generals. Finally, waiting until late October, he entered Canada to proceed to Montreal via the Chateaugay River. Along the way they would face resistance in a wooded area in the present day town of Ormstown Quebec.
It would be there that Lt. Colonel Charles-Michel d'Irumberry, Compte de Salaberry would completely dupe the American force. He ordered his small force of only 400 to play their bugles as loud as they could in the woods, and for them to make as much noise as possible. This tricked Hampton into thinking the force was larger than it actually was. The next day, Hampton ordered a retreat. The small force of 400 Canadians had defeated 4,000 Americans in yet another embarrassment. The one bright spot in the battle for the Americans was the bravery of General George Izard and his men. Wilkinson, moving up the St. Lawrence, would suffer a similar loss at Chrysler's Farm.
This mission was likely doomed from the get-go owing to Hampton's and Wilkinson's extreme hatred for one another. They both let their personal rivalry get in the way of their duty. General Wilkinson is a strong contender for the worst general in American history. He was another veteran of the Battles of Saratoga and was Horatio Gate's deputy adjutant general. His enjoyment for "stirring the pot" was apparent even at that time, as he stoked the flame to the animosity between Schuyler and Gates, and later with Benedict Arnold and Gates. In his recounts of the Saratoga campaign, he blatantly lied that Arnold had been stripped of his command during the second battle. This coming to light after a verified letter was found on eBay in 2016 that made it clear that Arnold still had command, shifting more than two centuries of the incorrect narrative written by Wilkinson. He was also found to be a double-agent secretly selling information to Spain. With this failed invasion, we have yet another failure on the part of the American land forces.
But Wilkinson was not done. In March 1814, he would organize yet another attempted siege of Montreal desperate to erase his earlier failures. He would march up the west shore of the Richelieu with a force of 4,000. Once again, Lacolle came under attack. But the ground was soft, so the Americans were unable to bring heavy artillery to the front line. The British at Isle aux Noix had been chipping away at the ice of the Richelieu River for exactly this scenario, and sent forces to the south. Wilkinson decided to retreat after suffering more than 250 dead and wounded. This would mercifully bring an end to the Wilkinson era, as he would be replaced by General George Izard.
Preparations for a Battle on Lake Champlain Begin
During the winter of 1813-14, the focus shifted towards more naval building. In his naval winter quarters in Vergennes, Vermont, MacDonough's attention shifted to strengthening his fleet. This came amid reports of increased naval activity at Isle aux Noix. For this task, he called upon two brothers - Adam and Noah Brown. They had an unbelievable ability to build naval vessels in a very short period of time.
The first task was outfitting a partially constructed vessel that was planned to be a steamship. Had the work continued for the vessel to be steam powered, this would have been the first steam powered warship in the world. However, given the notorious unreliability of the other Lake Champlain steamship (the Vermont I was the second steam powered ship in America) the decision was made not to proceed because it was too slow to be effective against British naval skill. So it was modified to be a schooner and was christened the USS Ticonderoga.
The second task would be a very large vessel that would be MacDonough's flagship vessel. In what can only be described as an engineering marvel on the Otter Creek, the Brown brothers build the 734 ton, three masted USS Saratoga in record time. The vessel went from forest to war ship in 40 days! Speed was the priority over quality, so all sorts of mixed wood varieties were used.
As spring came, so did the threats from the lurking British. The Americans built Fort Cassin, a U-shaped earthwork with cannon mounted on naval carriages, at the mouth of the Otter Creek to protect the American fleet. This seemingly long forgotten fort was about to be put to the test in a major way.
British Captain Daniel Pring sailed south along Lake Champlain with the objective to either destroy the American naval fleet, or at least block the passage to Otter Creek with a sunken vessel to prevent the American fleet from entering the lake. On May 14th, 1814, Pring and 120 marines laid siege to the fortification. The battle lasted for an hour and a half. The joint Army/Navy force had covered the shore adequately, even stretching out to Kingsland Bay to prevent a land attack on Vergennes. Due to this effective joint force, led by Lieutenant Stephen Cassin of the Navy and Arthur Thornton of the Army, no attempt was made to sink a vessel or land the 120 marines. Pring sailed back north, but he did not leave empty handed. Two prisoners were captured, who provided valuable intelligence to the British about the construction of the Saratoga.
With this info, the British Navy knew they had to respond in kind. They would begin construction on what would become the largest warship to ever sail on Lake Champlain, the HMS Confiance, a 12,000 ton three masted warship almost 150ft. long. The delay caused by the construction of this vessel, which could not be completed with the speed and skill of the Brown brothers, would eventually cost the British.
Upon MacDonough receiving intelligence of the large 30+ gun frigate under construction at Isle aux Noix, he sent a request to build an additional sloop of 18 guns. The request was initially denied by Secretary of the Navy William Jones who feared yet another "battle of broad axes" similar to the Great Lakes. However, in a rare move, President James Madison overruled Secretary Jones and approved the building of the sloop on Lake Champlain. The sloop would be launched on August 11th, exactly one month before the naval battle, and named the USS Eagle. This vessel gave MacDonough four large warships for an expected naval battle on the lake. The USS Eagle would join the USS Preble, USS Ticonderoga, and the flagship USS Saratoga along with 10 gunboats.
The British would counter in the expected naval conflict with four large warships of their own with the HMS Confiance, HMS Linnet, HMS Chubb, and the HMS Finch. Both sides expected a naval battle for supremacy of Lake Champlain, but it looked to be - in the larger scheme of the war - a somewhat insignificant event. However, news from Europe earlier in the year was about to change everything in the Champlain Valley.
10,000 Get Ready to Invade the Champlain Valley
The news from Europe was about to seriously change the scope of the War of 1812. Napoleon had been defeated in the spring. That freed up the seasoned British regulars to now focus their attention to North America and give the Americans a "drubbing." 13,000 of Europe's finest arrived in North America, although it was initially unclear where they would focus their attention. Once roughly 10,000 of those troops started to gather near the Richelieu River, local leaders began to fear the worst. They were heading to the Champlain Valley.
Preparing for the invasion would be the Governor General of the Canadas, Sir George Prevost. He was under orders to strike a blow to the Americans, despite the summer campaign season winding down. The Great Lakes were out of the question given the late date. So the obvious choice was the Champlain Valley. Prevost had rather vague orders to march south to a spot of his liking and occupy that territory. Now that the British in Canada were no longer on the defensive and clearly on the offensive, they had aspirations for the Champlain Valley, eastern Maine, and the entirety of the Great Lakes region; and, with a successful campaign in the Champlain Valley, British delegates would be in a prime position to demand these territorial gains.
Indeed, things looked bad for America and for the Champlain Valley. The British had indeed successfully occupied the eastern half of the Maine coast. The island of Nantucket had declared their neutrality in the conflict after being in a desperate situation with dwindling supplies. The New England states, especially Massachusetts, had had enough. They were seemingly exposed to the new British forces with no sign of assistance. Some were calling for the New England states to seek their own peace agreement with Great Britain. Worse yet, a diversionary force had been sent to the Chesapeake, and had invaded the nation's capital of Washington, burning the White House and several other government buildings. Government officials, including President Madison, had to scurry in multiple directions to avoid the British raiders. The confidence in the Madison administration was at an all-time low. America had a crisis on its hands, and one that seriously threatened to dissolve the union.
In the Champlain Valley, things did not look much better. The American naval fleet seemed to be in a decent position, but were still outmatched on paper. Worse yet, the Vermonters were freely supplying the large army at Isle aux Noix. There were so many cattle marched through Vermont into Quebec that Macomb described the scene as watching "herds of buffalo." The Vermonters even supplied the British Navy with equipment to finish the Confiance. Some believed that it was the Vermonters who kept that large army on the Richelieu from starving.
The land forces were less than half of what the British were about to invade with, which did not bode well. And it seemed as if Vermont's militia would not be allowed to fight outside of the state, under orders from Governor Chittenden, who was thoroughly opposed to the war.
Things were about to go from bad to worse though.
General George Izard and his force of 4,000 had initially requested to move to the west, thinking that the troop build-up in Quebec was intended for the western theater. This was approved. However, upon hearing intelligence to the contrary, and learning that the invasion would come through the Champlain Valley, he immediately rescinded his request and wanted to stay in Plattsburgh. Then, in a baffling move that has no rational explanation, Secretary of War John Armstrong ordered Izard to continue with his movement to the west. Izard protested with everything he had, saying that if they moved, Plattsburgh would be in possession of the enemy in three days time. He was ignored. He delayed as long as he could, hoping that Armstrong would change his mind. He did not, and they marched west.
This move left Alexander Macomb with less than 1500 effective troops to defend Plattsburgh against 10,000 of Europe's finest. Macomb did everything in his power to raise local militia, and ended up having a great deal of success, even from Vermont in a surprising turn. However, local militia had no chance against seasoned veterans of Europe. If the Americans had any chance, it would be the naval battle on Lake Champlain.
Then, in another baffling move, Sir James Yeo decided to change the commander of the naval forces just days before the invasion was to begin. Yeo placed George Downie, an accomplished naval commander, in charge of the invasion. However, Downie had no first-hand knowledge of Lake Champlain. He would also command the Confiance that was still being worked on as it was entering Lake Champlain.
September 11, 1814
The day had come. MacDonough had been hard at work coming up with a game plan that would give the Americans the best chance at success. He was well prepared, thinking of every contingency. He anchored his fleet in Cumberland Bay, just outside of Plattsburgh. This was a move of genius reminiscent of Arnold's brilliant plan at Valcour in 1776. He would force the British vessels to turn against the prevailing wind in a confined space, which would give his vessels the advantage. His vessels, especially the Saratoga had more cannonades than long guns, making the vessel more effective at short range. The Confiance was the opposite, equipped with more long guns than cannonades, making her more effective on the broad lake. This was homefield advantage for MacDonough. As the British fleet turned around Cumberland Head, some of the fiercest naval combat North America has ever seen was about to commence.
On land, the main British force had crossed the border on August 31st. They marched south along the main road, splitting up near Beekmantown into two columns. At Beekmantown, they met some stiff resistance from American forces at Culver Hill. The British would suffer some impressive losses, but not enough to affect the expected route in Plattsburgh. In the action at Culver Hill, the Duke of Wellington's nephew would lose his life. The British force marched south, again facing resistance at Halsey's Corners before the Americans fell back to their lines at the other end of the Saranac River. There, they had built three forts and a couple of Blockhouses. The Forts - Brown, Scott, and Moreau - were strategically placed along a curve near the outlet of the Saranac River into Lake Champlain.
The British ground troops would commence their attack in conjunction with the naval fleet. In preparation, a detachment was sent to the west looking to ford the Saranac near the site of Pike's Cantonment. However, a lack of planning and foresight resulted in the detachment getting lost, and needing to retrace their steps to cross the river.
On the Lake, the fighting was some kind of fierce. Onlookers had described the battle as sounding like a continual roar of thunder. The wind in Cumberland Bay is fickle, to say the least. So as the British fleet came into position, the wind suddenly died down, and the Confiance was closer to the Saratoga then initially desired. This gave the advantage to the Saratoga. The Saratoga laid some serious damage onto the broadside of the Confiance. 15 minutes into the battle, a cannon ball hit the end of a British cannon and forced it off of its carriage directly into Captain George Downie killing him instantly. The second in command of the vessel tried to signal the news to Pring, but he could not find the ship's signal book.
MacDonough himself was knocked unconscious twice in the battle. Once when a piece of rigging fell on his head, and another time when the head of a gunner was taken off and hit MacDonough square in the head. He regrouped both times, and would go about duties fit for a regular sailor to help his men when he could.
The Finch became inoperable after taking a beating from the Ticonderoga and eventually ended up beached on Crab Island, where the hospital was located. She was forced to strike her colors. Then the Eagle took a hit that cut the anchor and sailed out of position, but was able to regroup and anchor between the Ticonderoga and Saratoga. However, this move freed up the Linnet to focus on the Saratoga in addition to the Confiance.
This is where MacDonough made another brilliant move. With both the Saratoga and the Confiance in a desperate situation, MacDonough was able to execute a winching maneuver which allowed the Saratoga to make a 180 degree turn on anchor and present a fresh broadside. The Confiance attempted the same maneuver, but could not complete it. The Confiance had taken over 100 shots to her hull and had to choice but to strike her colors. The last British warship, the Linnet was also forced to strike her colors after taking on more than a foot of water on the lower deck.
After a fierce two and a half hour battle, MacDonough and the American fleet emerged victorious. This was a "signal victory" on the lake and one that the United States as a whole desperately needed. One of the marines on board with the British fleet, who had been a veteran of the Battle of Trafalgar, called that battle a "mere fleabite" compared to the fighting on Lake Champlain that fateful day. It was MacDonough's excellent planning that saved the day.
On land, the British force had finally crossed the river and had the American forts within sight. However, they received baffling orders at that time for an immediate retreat. Sir George Prevost, upon hearing the naval fleet had been defeated on the lake, saw no reason to continue with the battle or the invasion, as his supply line was now perceived to be non-existent. Prevost would receive intense scrutiny for this decision to abandon the invasion, but he was under strict orders not to extend his front lines and risk being cut off by the Americans. A few days later, the force was back in Canada.
Then came the unpleasant task of dealing with the casualties of the battle. The dead from both sides were buried in mass graves, side by side, on Crab Island where the hospital was located. Crab Island over the years has been almost criminally neglected. With the exception of a monument that has fallen into disrepair and a flag pole bearing the stars and stripes, the island has not been treated as it should, being hallowed ground for the fallen.
At one time, the island had been sold and a casino was planned for the site. But the people of Plattsburgh and New York stepped in, and the island is now owned by the State of New York. The officers of both sides, including Downie, were buried with full military honors at the Riverside Cemetery in Plattsburgh.
Repercussions of the Battle of Plattsburgh
The effects of this victory were felt almost immediately. Locally, Macomb and MacDonough were wined and dined and celebrated as the heroes they were. The New England delegation that was to meet and potentially discuss succession from the union took on a drastically different tone after the victory in Plattsburgh. The political moderates listed their grievances, but nothing more came. In Washington, D.C., as the government was trying to pick up the pieces from the raid on the capital, Madison had a victory he could rally around as they rebuilt.
However, the biggest repercussions of Plattsburgh were felt in Ghent, where a peace delegation for both sides were sharing proposals for bringing the war to an end. Up to this point, the British had the upper hand, and wanted land concessions that would include eastern Maine and all of the Great Lakes region. However, the failure to capture Plattsburgh robbed the British delegates of an important bargaining chip. The lack of Naval control in North America made it clear that the war would prolong itself if Britain wanted to meet its objectives. However, unrest had come back to Europe, and the cost of the war in North America was beginning to receive sharp criticism. Without that bargaining chip of Plattsburgh, the British delegation had no power in demanding land, and was obliged to agree to a peace treaty of status quo anti bellum, where boundaries would be set back to where they were before the war began. The peace agreement was signed on Christmas Eve, 1814.
With this perspective, it is hard to argue against the Battle of Plattsburgh being the most important battle of the war. The Battle of New Orleans grabbed the attention of the growing nation and Andrew Jackson, the charismatic hero, garnered fame from the war. But, that battle was fought on January 8th, 1815; more than two weeks after the peace treaty had been signed (that news was still making its way across the Atlantic). In the words of Teddy Roosevelt, MacDonough was the greatest figure in our naval history prior to the Civil War. Winston Churchill would also call Plattsburgh "the most decisive engagement of the war." Despite being seemingly forgotten in our nation's narrative, both the battle and MacDonough deserve their rightful place among the lore of our nation.
Sources:
Ansley, Norman. "Vergennes, Vermont and the War of 1812"
Barney, Jason. "Northern Vermont in the War of 1812"
Dishman, Christopher. "Warfare and Logistics Along the US-Canadian Border During the War of 1812"
Hemenway, Abby Maria. "The Vermont Historical Gazetteer, Volume 2, Part 1"
Herkalo, Keith. "The Battles at Plattsburgh: September 11th, 1814"
Ketchum, Richard. "Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War"
Mallett, Peter. "The History of Georgia Vermont, Volume #1"
Millard, James. "Lake Passages: A Journey Through the Centuries Volume 1 1609-1909"
Millard, James. "The Secrets of Crab Island"
Roosevelt, Theodore. "The Naval War of 1812"
Schroeder, John. "The Battle of Lake Champlain: A 'Brilliant and Extraordinary Victory '"
Tracy, Frank. "The Tercentenary History of Canada: From Champlain to Laurier MDCVIII - MCMVIII"
Weddle, Kevin. "The Compleat [sic] Victory: Saratoga and the American Revolution"